A comprehensive review of beneficiation strategies for beach sand minerals

Abstract

Beach sand minerals (BSMs), which encase ilmenite, rutile, monazite, zircon, garnet, and sillimanite, are a crucial class of heavy minerals widely utilized in high-tech industries, such as nuclear energy, aerospace, electronics, and advanced ceramics. Generally, units involving gravity, magnetic, electrostatic, and flotation-based separation are integrated in BSM beneficiation, with particle size distribution, mineralogical associations, and equivalent mineral properties as the principal factors controlling separation efficiency. Gravity concentration is the most economical preconcentration route; however, its efficiency declines for fine particle sizes, necessitating the use of multi-gravity separators. Similarly, electrostatic and magnetic separation are sensitive to the feed moisture content and surface contamination, requiring pretreatment. Flotation, which is the preferred unit for enhancing the grade, is controlled by factors such as surface chemistry, water quality, pH, and dissolved ion concentration. This review highlights the global physical and physicochemical beneficiation strategies for processing BSMs and critically evaluates mineral-specific flowsheets and recent advances, taking into account sustainability and cost considerations. This work integrates all these findings, highlights the key gaps, and recommends the future roadmap.